قرات E

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Chapter one

1- Background of modern management:

Management is an action of getting people together to accomplish a

particular goal or objective of the organization. And for running the

organization in a smooth was and to achieve the desired targets, a

proper management in this respective is very necessary.

There are four major functions of the management; it has been the same

in traditional way of management and the modern management. Those

four functions in which have been going on from the traditional times of

management to the present modern management are as follow;

Planning, organizing, Staffing, leading\directing and controlling (POSLC).

a- Nature and importance of management;

1- Management is goal-oriented: Management is not an end in itself. It is

a means to achieve certain goals. Management has no justification to

exist without goals. Management goals are called group goals or

organizational goals. The basic goal of management is to ensure

efficiency and economy in the utilization of human, physical and financial

resources.

2- Management is universal: Management is an essential element of

every organized activity irrespective of the size or type of activity. The

fundamental principles of management are applicable in all areas of

organized effort. Managers at all levels perform the same basic functions.

3- Management is an Integrative Force: The essence of management lies

in the coordination of individual efforts in to a team. Management

reconciles the individual goals with organizational goals. It integrates

human and other resources.

4- Management is a Social Process: Management is done by people,

through people and for people. It is a social process because it is

concerned with interpersonal relations. Human factor is the most

important element in management. According to Appley, “Management is

the development of people not the direction of things.

5- Management is multidisciplinary: Management has to deal with human

behaviour under dynamic conditions. Therefore, it depends upon wide 

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knowledge derived from several disciplines like engineering, sociology,

psychology, economics, and anthropology.

6- Management is a continuous Process: Management is a dynamic and

an on-going process. The cycle of management continues to operate so

long as there is organized action for the achievement of group goals.

7- Management is Intangible: Management is an unseen or invisible

force. It cannot be seen but its presence can be felt everywhere in the

form of results.

8- Management is an Art as well as Science: It contains a systematic

body of theoretical knowledge and it also involves the practical

application of such knowledge. Management is also a discipline involving

specialized training and an ethical code arising out of its social

obligations.

b- Management functions:

Effective management and leadership involve creative problem solving;

motivating employees and making sure the organization accomplishes

objectives and goals.

There are five functions of management and leadership: planning,

organizing, staffing, coordinating and controlling. These functions

separate the management process from other business functions such as

marketing, accounting and finance.

1- Organizing: The organizing function of leadership controls the overall

structure of the company. The organizational structure is the foundation

of a company; without this structure, the day-to-day operation of the

business becomes difficult and unsuccessful.

2- Planning: The planning function of management controls all the

planning that allows the organization to run smoothly. Planning involves

defining a goal and determining the most effective course of action

needed to reach that goal.

3- Staffing: The staffing function of management controls all recruitment

and personnel needs of the organization. The main purpose of staffing is

to hire the right people for the right jobs to achieve the objectives of the

organization. Staffing involves more than just recruitment; staffing also

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encompasses training and development, performance appraisals,

promotions and transfers.

4- Directing: The coordinating function of leadership controls all the

organizing, planning and staffing activities of the company and ensures

all activities function together for the good of the organization.

5- Controlling: The controlling function of management is useful for

ensuring all other functions of the organization are in place and are

operating successfully. Controlling involves establishing performance

standards and monitoring the output of employees to ensure each

employee’s performance meets those standards.

c- Development of management thought;

1- Stages in the History of Development of Management Thought:

The emergence of management thought is not a matter of mere chance.

Its development was gradual and it has passed through various distinct

time periods. Herbert G. Hicks has divided the period into four distinct

stages.

Since this movement has achieved new horizon only during the through

various distinct present century, we shall classify the stages of the time

periods i.e. the evolution of management into three periods;

2- The classical Period the neoclassical period (1900-1930):

We can identify three streams of thought in this period:

- Bureaucratic Model introduced by Max Webber around 1900.

- Scientific Management Concept introduced by F.W, Taylor around

1910.

- Functional or Administrative or Process Management Theory advanced

by Henry Fayol around 1910.

3- The Modern Management Theories:

It consists of three steams of thought:

- Quantitative Approach or Operations Research Analysis and this was

developed by Taylor around 1950.

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- Systems Approach, this was propounded by Boulding, Johnson and

others after 1950.

- Contingency Approach, this was developed by Lorsch, Lawrence and

others.

d- The history of management:

- Historical Theories of Management;

1- Scientific Management Theory (1890-1940); the most notable

organizations were large and industrialized. Often they included ongoing,

routine tasks that manufactured a variety of products. The United States

highly prized scientific and technical matters, including careful

measurement and specification of activities and results.

2- scientific management theory; Frederick Taylor the pioneer of this

approach, which espoused this careful specification and measurement of

all organizational tasks. Tasks were standardized as much as possible.

Workers were rewarded and punished. This approach appeared to work

well for organizations with assembly lines and other mechanistic and

routinized activities.

3- Bureaucratic Management Theory (1930-1950); Max Weber focused

on dividing organizations into hierarchies, establishing strong lines of

authority and control. He suggested organizations develop

comprehensive and detailed standard operating procedures for all

routinized tasks.

4- Human Relations Movement (1930-today); it believes that attention

was given to individuals and their unique capabilities in the organization.

A major belief included that the organization would prosper if its workers

prospered as well. Human Resource departments were added to

organizations.

e- Schools of management thought:

1- The scientific management movement; Frederick Winslow Taylor

(1856-1915) is considered to be the father of scientific management.

Henry Gantt, Frank and Lillian Gilberth and Harrington Emerson

supported Taylor in his efforts. Together with Taylor they revolutionized

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management thinking. Scientific management is the name given to the

principles and practices that are characterized by concern for efficiency

and systematization in management.

2- The human relations theory; Elton Mayo has been considered as the

father of the human relations movement. He believed that organizations

always involve interrelationships among members and that it is the

manager’s role to see that relationships are as conflict free as possible, in

order to accomplish the organization’s objectives, he believed that the

human aspects of business organizations had been largely ignored, he

felt that satisfaction of psychological needs should be the primary

concern of the management.

3- The administrative theory: Fayol believed that managerial practices

were the key to predictability and efficiency in organizations. The

Administrative theory views communication as a necessary ingredient to

successful management and many of Fayol's practices are still alive in

today's workplace. The elements and principles of management can be

found in modern organizations in several ways. The U.S. military is a

prime example of an organization that has continued to use these

principles.

4- The behavioral school; it gives primacy to psychological considerations

but treats fulfillment of emotional needs mainly as a means of achieving

other primary economic goals. And to develop techniques to utilize

people more effectively in organizations.

5- The system and quantitative approach to management: The term

"systems" is derived from the Greek word "synistanai," which means "to

bring together or combine." Components of the organization referred to

as the "systems approach" has been used to manage armies and

governments. However, it was not until the Industrial Revolution that

formal recognition of the "systems" approach to management,

philosophy, and science emerged. As the level of precision and efficiency

demanded of technology, science, and management increased the

complexity of industrial processes, it became increasingly necessary to

develop a conceptual basis to avoid being overwhelmed by complexity.

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2- The system’s concept;

There are four major concepts underlie the systems approach:

- Specialization: A system is divided into smaller components allowing

more specialized concentration on each component.

- Grouping: To avoid generating greater complexity with increasing

specialization, it becomes necessary to group related disciplines or subdisciplines.

- Coordination: As the components and subcomponents of a system are

grouped, it is necessary to coordinate the interactions among groups.

- Emergent properties: Dividing a system into subsystems (groups of

component parts within the system), requires recognizing and

understanding the "emergent properties" of a system; that is, recognizing

why the system as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

3- The management as system; Management Systems are systematic

framework designed to manage an organization's policies, procedures

and processes. The implementation of a proven and effective

management system can help an organization to improve operations,

manage risk and promote stakeholder confidence.

4- The open system; An open system is a system that has external

interactions, such interactions can take the form of information, energy,

or material transfers into or out of the system boundary. An open system

is contrasted with the concept of an isolated system, which exchanges

energy, matter, or information with its environment.

5- Moral and social dimensions of management;

a- An organization's morality is not a stand-alone field;

It needs to achieve both profitability and fairness through ethical business

practices. Organizations must practice restraint when tempted by shortterm gains and remain focused on long-term profits that can result from

ethical behavior, thereby pleasing shareholders, satisfies buyers and

other stakeholders.

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b- Manager’s responsibility in the office and in society;

A manager’s responsibility is to uphold his duties both as an employee of

an organization and as a member of society. The ethical approaches of

purpose, principle and consequence are integral components of business

social performance.

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Chapter two

Planning:

The planning function of management controls all the planning that

allows the organization to run smoothly. Planning involves defining a goal

and determining the most effective course of action needed to reach that

goal. Planning also involves knowledge of the company’s resources and

the future objectives of the business.

a- Nature and purpose of planning;

Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it,

and who is to it. Therefore, every manager has to select objectives for his

enterprise, department, section, unit or group. Based on the objectives he

has to set goals for a specific period and make plans that contain ways of

reaching the set goals. Planning in general is explained as generating

alternatives and selection of the most suitable alternatives from among

them for solving a problem.

b- Management by objectives; (MBO), also known as management by

results (MBR), is a process of defining objectives within an organization

so that management and employees agree to the objectives, understand

and what they need to do in the organization in order to achieve them.

The term "management by objectives" was first popularized by Peter

Drucker in his 1954 book The Practice of Management.

c- Decision making; According to Massie, a decision can be defined as a

course of action consciously chosen from available alternatives for the

purpose of desired result

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Chapter Three

Organization and staffing:

1- Meaning of organization;

A social unit of people that is structured and managed to meet a need or

to pursue collective goals. All organizations have

a management structure that determines relationships between the

different activities and the members, assigns roles, responsibilities,

and authority to carry out different tasks. Organizations

are open systems--they affect and are affected by their environment.

2- Organization structure; an organizational structure defines how

activities such as task allocation, coordination and supervision are

directed toward the achievement of organizational aims.

3- Formal and informal organization;

a- Formal organization is a fixed set of rules of procedures and

structures. It is usually set out in writing, with a language of rules that

ostensibly leave little discretion for interpretation. In some societies and

in some organizations, such rules may be strictly followed. Its function is

to facilitate the accomplishment of the goals of the organization.

b- The informal organization is the interlocking social structure that

governs how people work together in practice. It is the aggregate of,

norms, personal and professional connections through which work gets

done and relationships are built among people who share a

common organizational affiliation or cluster of affiliations. It consists of a

dynamic set of personal relationships, social networks, communities of

common interest, and emotional sources of motivation.

4- Types of organization structure (departmentalization);

Departmentalization involves dividing an organization into different

departments, which perform tasks according to the departments'

specializations in the organization. Departmentalization as a means of

structuring an organization can be found in both public and private

organizations. An organization can structure itself into departments in the

following ways;

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a- Functional departmentalization - Grouping activities by functions

performed. Activities can be grouped according to function (work being

done) to pursue economies of scale by placing employees with shared

skills and knowledge into departments. For example human resources

and accounting.

b- Product departmentalization - Grouping activities by product line.

Tasks can also be grouped according to a specific product or service,

thus placing all activities related to the product or the service under one

manager. Each major product area in the corporation is under the

authority of a senior manager who is specialist in, and is responsible for

everything related to the product line.

c- Customer departmentalization - Grouping activities on the basis of

common customers or types of customers. Jobs may be grouped

according to the type of customer served by the organization. The

assumption is that customers in each department have a common set of

problems and needs that can best be met by specialists.

d- Geographic departmentalization - Grouping activities on the basis of

territory. If an organization's customers are geographically dispersed, it

can group jobs based on geography. For example, the organization

structure of Coca-Cola has reflected the company’s operation in two

broad geographic areas – the North American sector and the

international sector, which includes the Pacific Rim, the European

Community, Northeast Europe, Africa and Latin America groups.

e- Process departmentalization - Grouping activities on the basis of

product or service or customer flow. Because each process requires

different skills, process departmentalization allows homogenous activities

to be categorized. For example, the applicants might need to go through

several departments namely validation, licensing and treasury, before

receiving the driver’s license.

fDivisional departmentalization - When the firm develops independent

lines of business that operate as separate companies, all contributing to

the corporation profitability, the design is called divisional

departmentalization.

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5- Line and Staff:

a- Define line; Line in management is a business term to describe the

administration of activities that contribute directly to the output of

products or services. In a corporate hierarchy, a line manager holds

authority in a vertical (chain of command), and/or over a particular

product line. He or she is charged with meeting corporate objectives in a

specific functional area or line of business.

b- Define staff; it is an employee contributes labor and expertise to an

endeavor of an employer and is usually hired to perform specific duties,

which are packaged into a job. An Employee is a person who is hired to

provide services to a company on a regular basis in exchange for

compensation and who does not provide these services as part of an

independent business.

6- The line – staff relationships; Staff and line are names given to

different types of functions in organizations. A "line function" is one that

directly advances an organization in its core work. This always

includes production and sales, and sometimes also marketing. A "staff

function" supports the organization with specialized advisory and support

functions. For example, human resources, accounting, public

relations and the legal department are generally considered to be staff

functions.

7- Improving line – staff relations; It is very common for line and staff

workers to come into conflict. Staff specialists say line workers avoid and

ignore them, and line workers say staff workers lack expertise in the

organization's core work, distract them, and get in their way. Some

management theorists have observed that line managers sometimes

resent staff advisors for being younger and better educated than they

are.

8- Authority and responsibility; Line managers have total authority over

those who report directly to them, but staff workers have primarily

advisory authority. Their function is to create, develop, collect and

analyze information, which flows to line workers in the form of advice.

- Staff positions can have four kinds of authority:

a- "Advise authority," with line managers choosing whether or not to

seek advice from the staff person, and deciding what to do with the

advice once they get it.

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b- "Compulsory advice" or "compulsory consultation" in which line

managers must consider the staff person's advice, but can choose

not to heed it.

c- "Concurrent authority," in which the line manager cannot finalize a

decision without the agreement of the staff person

d- "Functional authority" in which the staff person has complete formal

authority over his or her area of specialty.

9- Organization levels and staffing;

a- Top-level management; the top consists of the board of

directors (including non-executive directors and executive directors),

president, vice-president, CEOs. They are responsible for controlling and

overseeing the entire organization.

They develop strategic plans, company policies, and make decisions on

the direction of the business.

b- Middle-level managers; it Consists of general managers, branch

managers and department managers. They are accountable to the top

management for their department's function. They devote more time to

organizational and directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized

as executing organizational plans in conformance with the company's

policies and the objectives of the top management.

c- Lower-level managers; it consists of supervisors, section leaders,

foremen. They focus on controlling and directing. They usually have the

responsibility of assigning employees tasks, guiding and supervising

employees on day-to-day activities.

10- Staffing; Staffing basically involves matching jobs and individuals.

This may require functions like manpower planning, recruitment,

selection, training, development, performance appraisal, transfers, and

promotions.

a- Nature of staffing:

- Staffing is a basic function of management.

- It is concerned with human resources management in the organization.

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- Staffing function is performed continuously. Every manager has to guide

and train employees and also evaluate their performance on a

continuous basis.

b- purpose of staffing;

The main purpose of this function is to make optimum utilization of

human resources and also to provide proper satisfaction to employees.

Since staffing deals with human beings who have their own needs,

emotions and aspirations this function is different from other managerial

functions.

3- Developing and Training of managers;

a- Developing:

- Making individuals in the organization aware of the vision of the

organization.

- Organizational development helps in making employees align with

the vision of the organization.

- Encouraging employees to solve problems instead of avoiding

them.

- Strengthening inter-personnel trust, cooperation, and

communication for the successful achievement of organizational

goals.

- Encouraging individuals to participate in the process of planning,

thus making them feel responsible for the implementation of the

plan.

- Creating a work atmosphere in which employees are encouraged to

work and participate enthusiastically.

b- Training:

- To increase the level of inter-personal trust among employees.

- To increase employees' level of satisfaction and commitment.

- To confront problems instead of neglecting them.

- To effectively manage conflict.

- To increase cooperation and collaboration among the employees.

- To increase the organization's problem solving.

- To put in place processes that will help improve the ongoing operation

of the

 Organization on a continuous basis.

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4- Approaches to managerial;

a- Human Behaviour Approach; it centres on human relations,

Leadership or Behavioural Science Approach. It bears the existing and

newly developed theories and methods of the relevant social

sciences upon the study of human behavior ranging from personality

dynamics of individuals to the relations of culture.

Focused on:

Interpersonal = individual Psychology

Group = Social Psychology and Organizational Behaviour.

Features;

As management is the process of getting things done by people,

managers should understand human behaviour.

Emphasis is put on increasing productivity through motivation, good

human relations, leadership, communication and group dynamics are the

central core of this approach.

It suggests how the knowledge of human behaviour can be used in

making people more effective in the organization. An individual’s

behaviour is not determined by organization factors alone but also by his

attitude, pressure, conflicts of cultural environment.

b- Social System Approach; The real pioneers of this approach

are Vilfredo Pareto and Chester Barnard. They believe that an

organization is essentially a cultural system composed of people who

work in cooperation. For achieving organization goals, a cooperative

system of management can be developed only by understanding the

behaviour of people in groups.

Features;

- Organization is a social system, a system of cultural relationships.

- Relationships exist among the external as well as internal environment

of the organization.

- Cooperation among group members is necessary for the achievement

of organization objectives.

- For effective management, efforts should be made for establishing

harmony between goals of the organization and the various groups

therein.

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c- Socio-Technical Systems Approach; The contributors are Trist and

Bamforth of Tavistock Institute of Human Relations.

Features;

- The socio-technical systems approach of management views an

organization as a combination of 2 systems – a social system and a

technical system. The real pattern of behaviour in the organization is

determined by the interaction of both of them.

- Social systems of the organization is governed by social laws as well as

by psychological forces.

- Technical systems consists of technological forces operating in the

organization like physical setting of work, rules, procedures.

d- Decision Theory Approach;

Features;

- Management is essentially decision-making.

- Members of the organization are decision-makers and problems

solvers.

- Organization can be treated as a combination of various decision

centres. The level and importance of organization members are

determined on the basis of importance of decisions.

- Quality of decision affects the organization effectiveness.

e- Management Science Approach; It is known as Mathematical or

Quantitative Measurement Approach.

Features;

- Management is regarded as the problem-solving mechanism with the

help of mathematical tools and techniques.

- Management problems can be described in terms of mathematical

symbols and data.

- This approach covers decision-making, systems analysis and some

aspects of human behaviour.

- Operations research, mathematical tools, simulation, models etc. are

the basic methodologies to solve managerial problems.

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fSystems Approach; System is defined as “An organized, an

assemblage or combination of things or parts forming a complex unitary.

Features;

- A system is basically a combination of parts, subsystems. Each part

may have various sub-parts.

- An organization is a system of mutually dependent parts, each of which

may include many subsystems.

g- Contingency or Situational Approach (based on conditions); it is the

most recent development in the field of management. This attempts to

integrate all the management approaches.

Features;

- Management action is contingent on certain action outside the system

or subsystem as the case may be.

- Organizational action should be based on the behaviour of action

outside the system so that organization should be integrated with the

environment.

Because of the specific organization – environment relationship, no

action can be universal.

- It varies from situation to situation

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Chapter four

1- Directing;

Directing means giving instructions, guiding, counseling, motivating and

leading the staff in an organization in doing work to achieve

Organizational goals. Directing is a key managerial function to be

performed by the manager along with planning, organizing, staffing and

controlling. From top executive to supervisor performs the function of

directing and it takes place accordingly wherever superior – subordinate

relations exist. Directing is a continuous process initiated at top level and

flows to the bottom through organizational hierarchy.

a- Management of human resources; (simply HR) is a function in

organizations designed to maximize employee performance in service of

an employer's strategic objectives. HR is primarily concerned with the

management of people within organizations, focusing on policies and

on systems. HR departments and units in organizations typically

undertake a number of activities, including employee benefits design

employee recruitment, "training and development", performance

appraisal, and rewarding.

b- Basic concepts of directing;

- Hiring and Recruitment;

Human resource manager must be adept at hiring and recruiting new

employees. Identifying, recruiting, interviewing and hiring high-performing

employees are essential for the long-term success of the organization.

Creating policies and procedures for the hiring and recruiting process and

teaching these skills to all the managers is also critical for the future of

the organization.

- Compensation and Benefits;

Human resource managers must also create, administer and improve the

compensation and benefit structures. Retaining excellent associates

depends on many factors. Outstanding pay and benefits are two critical

factors that will ultimately determine how well the employees feel about

the organization and the likelihood that they will remain with the company

in the future.

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- Training and Development;

Training and development skills are also vital assets for the human

resource manager. The ability to create training programs that solve

human performance problems will yield important benefits for the

organization. Instructional design skills, as well as outstanding facilitation

and presentation abilities, result in training programs that produce

tangible results for the company.

- Performance Management;

The ability to effectively manage the performances of the employees is

an integral part of the human resource manager's job duties. Establishing

and implementing a complete performance improvement process is an

essential skill. Designing a performance review process, maintaining it

and effectively monitoring its implementation are challenging tasks.

Coaching the managers on how to use the performance management

program is also an important function of the HR team.

2- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs;

The most widespread version of Maslow's was between (1943, 1954). He

summed hierarchy of needs in five motivational needs, often depicted as

hierarchical levels within a pyramid.

Maslow wanted to understand what motivates people. He believed that

people possess a set of motivation systems unrelated

to rewards or unconscious desires.

Maslow stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When

one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fulfill the next one, and so on.

This five stage model can be divided into basic (or deficiency) needs (e.g.

physiological, safety, love, and esteem) and growth needs (selfactualization).

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a. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, sleep.

b. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability,

freedom from fear.

c. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, affection and

love, - from work group, family, friends, romantic relationships.

d. Esteem needs - achievement, mastery, independence, status,

dominance, prestige, self-respect, and respect from others.

e. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment,

seeking personal growth and peak experiences.

3- Maturation; it is the management roles that relies upon internally

consistent definitions and measures that provide transparency to both

internal and external stakeholders to ensure an accurate understanding

of the current resources maturation for each project is communicated to

management and to key decision makers.

4- Business and need satisfaction;

There's convincing evidence that HR drives customer satisfaction—and

corporate revenues - by careful attention to who is hired, how they are

trained, how they are coached, and how they are treated on the job.

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5- Communications:

It is the systematic planning, implementing, monitoring, and revision of all

the channels of communication within an organization, and between

organizations; it also includes the organization and dissemination of new

communication directives connected with an organization, network, or

communications technology. Aspects of communications management

include developing corporate communication strategies, designing

internal and external communications directives, and managing the flow

of information.

a- The process of communications;

- Sender: Sender is the person who conveys the message. The

communication process begins immediately when the idea comes in the

mind of sender.

- Message: it is the contents of ideas or message or suggestion which

sender wants to share with receiver is called message.

- Media: It is the way or means through which encoded message has to

be transmitted to receiver. The common ways of transmission are phone,

letter, internet, message, etc.

- Receiver: is the person who receives the communication and

understands the message.

- Feedback: After understanding the message the receiver sends his

response on that idea or message to sender. When response reaches

the sender then the communication process ends.

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b- Downward communications;

Downward communication occurs when information and messages flow

down through an organization's formal chain of command or hierarchical

structure. In other words, messages and orders start at the upper levels

of the organizational hierarchy and move down toward the bottom levels.

Responses to downward communications move up along the same path.

c- Two – way flow communications;

It is a form of transmission in which both parties involved in transmit

information. Two-Way communication has also been referred to as

interpersonal communication. Two-way communication involves

feedback from the receiver to the sender. This allows the sender to know

the receiver received the message accurately.

6- Leadership and supervision;

a- Leadership is both a research area and a practical skill, regarding the

ability of an individual or organization to "lead" or guide other individuals,

teams, or entire organizations. Controversial viewpoints are present in

the literature, amongst Eastern and Western approaches to leadership,

and also within the West, on US vs. European approaches.

In US academic leadership is defined as "a process of social influence in

which a person can enlist the aid and support of others in the

accomplishment of a common task". Leadership seen from a European

and non-academic perspective encompasses a view of a leader who can

be moved both by communitarian goals but also by the search

for personal power.

b- Supervision; the action or process of watching and directing what

someone does or how something is done.

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7- Traits successful leader and productive leadership;

a- Have a Clear Vision — The ability to see the future.

b- Be Motivated by Passion.

c- Focus on the Mission.

d- Build Strong Credibility.

e- Be Honest.

fBe Trustworthy.

g- Follow a Solid Strategy

h- Have Empathy.

i- Focus on the other person and not on yourself.

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Chapter five

Controlling:

1- Meaning of controlling; according to Brech, control is checking current

performance against pre-determined standards contained in the plans,

with a view to ensure adequate progress and satisfactory performance.

2- Essential elements of control;

1. A predetermined goal, plan, policy, standard, norm, decision rule,

criterion.

2. A means for measuring current activity (quantitatively, if possible).

3. A means of comparing current activity with a criterion.

4. Some means of correcting the current activity to achieve the desired

result.

3- Control devices;

a- Establishing standards; Within an organization's overall strategic plan,

managers define goals for organizational departments in specific,

operational terms that include standards of performance to compare with

organizational activities.

b- Comparing actual result to the standards; This step compares actual

activities to performance standards. When managers read computer

reports or walk through their plans, they identify whether actual

performance meets, exceeds, or falls short of standards.

c- Taking a corrective action; When performance deviates from

standards, managers must determine what changes are necessary and

how to apply them.